Slavery is a system in which people are the property of others. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand wages. In some societies it was legal for an owner to kill a slave; in others it was a crime to kill a slave.^[1]

Contents 1 Definitions 2 Etymology 3 History 3.1 The Arab slave trade 3.2 Slave trade in Europe 3.3 Slavery in Africa 3.4 Slavery in Asia 3.5 The transatlantic slave trade 3.6 Slavery in the United States 3.7 Abolitionist movements 4 Contemporary slavery 4.1 Current situation 4.2 Human trafficking 5 Economics 6 Apologies 6.1 Reparations 7 Other uses of the term 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links

Definitions

The organization Anti-Slavery International Anti-Slavery International is an International nongovernmental organization, charity and a lobby group, based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1839, it is the world's oldest international human rights organisation, and the only charity in the United Kingdom to work exclusively against slavery and related abuses defines slavery as "forced labour." By this definition there are approximately 27 million One million or one thousand thousand, is the natural number following 999,999 and preceding 1,000,001. The name is derived from Latin, where mille was 1,000, and 1,000,000 became milione, "a large thousand"[citation needed] slaves in the world today, more than at any point in history History is the study of the human past. Scholars who write about history are called historians. It is a field of research which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence of events, and it sometimes attempts to investigate objectively the patterns of cause and effect that determine events. Historians debate the nature of history and its and more than twice as many as all African slaves who survived being taken to the Americas in the Atlantic slave trade The Atlantic Slave Trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trading, primarily of African people, to the colonies of the New World that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean. It lasted from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Most enslaved people were shipped from West Africa and Central Africa and taken to North and South.^[2][3][4]

The International Labour Organisation The International Labour Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that deals with labour issues. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. Its secretariat — the people who are employed by it throughout the world — is known as the International Labour Office. The organization received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1969, however, does not equate forced labour with slavery. According to ILO, there are estimated 12 million people around the world still working under coercion in forced labour, slavery and slavery-like practices.^[5]

Most are debt slaves Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations, especially in modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will by the threat of destitution, detention, violence (including death), or other extreme hardship to themselves, or to members of their families. Many of these forms of work may be, largely in South Asia South Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities , also includes the adjoining countries on the west and the east. Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as the Indian subcontinent south of the, who are under debt bondage incurred by lenders A loan is a type of debt. Like all debt instruments, a loan entails the redistribution of financial assets over time, between the lender and the borrower, some for generations.^[6] Human trafficking Human trafficking is the illegal trade in human beings for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation or forced labor: a modern-day form of slavery. It is the fastest growing criminal industry in the world, tied with the illegal arms industry as the second largest, after the drug-trade is mostly for prostituting women A woman is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the term girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent. However, the term woman is also sometimes used to identify a female human, regardless of age, as in phrases such as "Women's rights" and children Biologically, a child is generally a human between the stages of birth and puberty. The legal definition of "child" generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority. "Child" may also describe a relationship with a parent or authority figure, or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, into the sex trade.^[7] It is described as "the largest slave trade The history of slavery covers systems throughout human history in which one human being is legally the property of another, can be bought or sold, is not allowed to escape and must work for the owner without any choice involved. A critical element is that children of a slave mother automatically become slaves. It does not include forced labor by in history", is the fastest growing organized crime Organized crime or criminal organizations is a transnational grouping of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals for the purpose of engaging in illegal activity, most commonly for the purpose of generating a monetary profit. The Organized Crime Control Act defines organized crime as "The unlawful activities of [...] a highly organized, industry and according to predictions is set to outgrow drug trafficking The illegal drug trade is a global black market consisting of the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of illegal controlled drugs. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types of drugs by drug control laws. Some drugs, notably alcohol and tobacco, are outside the scope of these laws, but may be subject to.^[7][8]

Etymology

The English word slave derives through Old French Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories that span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from the 9th century to the 14th century. It is a direct descendent of Old Gallo-Romance. It was then known as the langue d'oïl to distinguish it from the langue d'oc (Occitan language, and Medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange and as the liturgical language of the medieval Roman Catholic Church, but also as a language of science, literature, law, and administration. Despite the clerical origin of many of its authors, medieval Latin should not be confused with from the medieval word for the Slavic The Slavic Peoples are an ethnic and linguistic branch of Indo-European peoples, living mainly in central and eastern Europe. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of the Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans. Many settled later in Siberia and Central Asia or emigrated to other parts of the world. Over half of Europe's people of Central and Eastern Europe Central and Eastern Europe is a term describing former communist states in Europe, after the collapse of the Iron Curtain in 1989/90. In scholarly literature the abbreviations CEE or CEEC are often used for this concept. CEE includes all the Eastern bloc countries west of the post-World War II border with the former Soviet Union, the independent.^[9][10]

History

Main article: History of slavery The history of slavery covers systems throughout human history in which one human being is legally the property of another, can be bought or sold, is not allowed to escape and must work for the owner without any choice involved. A critical element is that children of a slave mother automatically become slaves. It does not include forced labor by Slave market in early medieval Eastern Europe. Painting by Sergei Ivanov.

Evidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed in many cultures Culture is a term that has different meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses:.^[11] Slavery is rare among hunter–gatherer populations, as slavery is a system of social stratification. Mass slavery also requires economic surpluses and a high population density to be viable. Due to these factors, the practice of slavery would have only proliferated after the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic revolution about 11,000 years ago.^[12] The earliest records of slavery can be traced to the Code of Hammurabi The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved ancient law code, created ca. 1790 BC (middle chronology) in ancient Babylon. It was enacted by the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi. One nearly complete example of the Code survives today, inscribed on a seven foot, four inch tall diorite stele in the Akkadian language in the cuneiform script (ca. 1760 BC), and the Bible The Bible refers to collections of sacred scripture of Judaism and Christianity. There is no single version: both the individual books and their order vary. The Hebrew Bible contains 39 books, while Christian Bibles range from the 66 books of the Protestant canon to 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. The oldest surviving Christian Bibles refers to it as an established institution.^[13] Slavery was known to occur in civilizations as old as Sumer Sumer was a civilization and historical region in southern Mesopotamia, modern Iraq. It is the earliest known civilization in the world and is known as the Cradle of Civilization. The Sumerian civilization spanned over 3000 years and began with the first settlement of Eridu in the Ubaid period (mid 6th millennium BC) through the Uruk period (4th, as well as almost every other ancient civilization, including Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia. Its history, Ancient China Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers both along the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era. Also, the Yellow River is to be said as the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. The written history of China can be found as early as the Shang Dynasty . Oracle Bones with ancient Chinese writing from the Shang, the Akkadian Empire The Akkadian Empire was an empire centered in the city of Akkad (Sumerian: Agade , Arabic: أكد, Assyrian: ܐܵܟܟܵܐܕ , Hittite KUR A.GA.DÈKI "land of Akkad"; Biblical Accad) and its surrounding region (Akkadian URU Akkad KI) in Ancient Iraq, (Mesopotamia). The Akkadian state was the predecessor of the ethnic Akkadian states of, Assyria Assyria was a kingdom centered on the Upper Tigris river, in Mesopotamia , that came to rule regional empires a number of times through history. It was named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur (Akkadian: 𒀸𒋗𒁺 𐎹 Aššūrāyu; Arabic: أشور Aššûr; Hebrew: אַשּׁוּר Aššûr, Aramaic: ܐܬܘܪ Aṯur. The term, Ancient India The Bronze Age in South Asia begins around 3000 BC in North India, and in the gives rise to the Indus Valley Civilization, which had its mature period between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It continues into the Rigvedic period, the early part of the Vedic period. It is succeeded by the Indian Iron Age, beginning around 1000 BC, Ancient Greece Ancient Greece is the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. At the center of this time period is Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC, at first under Athenian, the Roman Empire The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, Augustus, the Islamic Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] [note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of their one, incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's teachings and normative example (in Arabic called Caliphate The term caliphate refers to the first system of governance established in Islam. The most common translation for the word which appears in the Quran is vicegerency (or caretaker). It is a republic, which means that the rulers are bound by a set of laws which they cannot break at a whim, and the people have the right to appoint their leader, and the pre-Columbian civilizations This list of pre-Columbian civilizations includes those civilizations and cultures of the Americas which flourished prior to the European colonization of the Americas. These pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics such as permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, and complex societal hierarchies of the Americas The Americas, or America, are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World, comprising the continents of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions. America may be ambiguous in English, as it is more commonly used to refer to the United States of America. The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total.^[11] Such institutions were a mixture of debt-slavery, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war A prisoner of war or enemy prisoner of war (EPW) is a combatant who is held in continuing custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase is dated 1660, child abandonment Child abandonment is the practice of relinquishing interests and claims over one's offspring with the intent of never again resuming or reasserting it. Causes include many social and cultural factors as well as mental illness. An abandoned child is called a foundling, and the birth of slave children to slaves.^[14] Records of slavery in Ancient Greece Slavery was common practice and an integral component of ancient Greece throughout its history, as it was in other societies of the time including ancient Israel and early Christian societies. It is estimated that in Athens, the majority of citizens owned at least one slave. Most ancient writers considered slavery not only natural but necessary, go as far back as Mycenaean Greece Mycenaean Greece is a cultural period of Ancient Greece taking its name from the archaeological site of Mycenae in northeastern Argolis, in the Peloponnese of southern Greece. Athens, Pylos, Thebes, and Tiryns are also important Mycenaean sites. The last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece, it is the historical setting of much ancient Greek. Two-fifths (some authorities say four-fifths) of the population of Classical Athens The city of Athens during the classical period of Ancient Greece was a notable polis (city-state) of Attica, Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Hippias. This system remained remarkably stable, were slaves.^[15] Greek philosophers such as Aristotle Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most accepted the theory of natural slavery, that is, that some men are slaves by nature.^[16][17]

As the Roman Republic The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterised by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c. 509 BC, and lasted 482 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period expanded outward, entire populations were enslaved Slavery in the ancient world, specifically, in Mediterranean cultures, comprised a mixture of debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime, and the enslavement of prisoners of war, thus creating an ample supply from all over Europe and the Mediterranean. Greeks The Greeks , also known as Hellenes, are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world, Illyrians The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited the Western Balkans during classical antiquity. The territory the tribes covered came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, corresponding roughly to the area of the former Yugoslavia and Albania, between the Adriatic sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in, Berbers Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are discontinuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke various Berber languages, which together form a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Today many of them speak, Germans The Germanic peoples are a historical ethno-linguistic group, originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages, which diversified out of Common Germanic in the course of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The descendants of these peoples became, and in many areas contributed to, the ethnic groups of North, Britons The Britons were the Celtic people living in Great Britain from the Iron Age through the Early Middle Ages. They spoke the Insular Celtic language known as British or Brythonic. They lived throughout Britain south of about the Firth of Forth; after the 5th century Britons also migrated to continental Europe, where they established the settlements, Thracians The ancient Thracians were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting areas in Eastern, Central and Southeastern Europe known as Thrace. They spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family. The study of Thracians and Thracian culture is known as Thracology, Gauls The Gauls were a Celtic people living in Gaul, the region roughly corresponding to what is now France and Belgium, from the Iron Age through the Roman period. They spoke the Continental Celtic language called Gaulish, Jews The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation. Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos, Arabs, and many more were slaves used not only for labour, but also for amusement (e.g. gladiators and sex slaves). This oppression by an elite minority eventually led to slave revolts (see Roman Servile Wars); the Third Servile War led by Spartacus being the most famous and severe. By the late Republican era, slavery had become a vital economic pillar in the wealth of Rome, as well as a very significant part of Roman society.^[18] It is estimated that over 25% of the population of Ancient Rome was enslaved.^[19] According to some scholars, slaves represented 35% or more of Italy's population.^[20] In the city of Rome alone, under the Roman Empire, there were about 400,000 slaves.^[21] During the millennium from the emergence of the Roman Empire to its eventual decline, at least 100 million people were captured or sold as slaves throughout the Mediterranean and its hinterlands.^[22]

13th century slave market in Yemen. Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962.^[23]

The early medieval slave trade was mainly confined to the South and East: the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world were the destinations, pagan Central and Eastern Europe, along with the Caucasus and Tartary, were important sources. Viking, Arab, Greek and Jewish merchants (known as Radhanites) were all involved in the slave trade during the Early Middle Ages.^[24][25][26]

Medieval Spain and Portugal were the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In raid against Lisbon, Portugal in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves, Portugal in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves.^[27] From the 11th to the 19th century, North African Barbary Pirates engaged in Razzias, raids on European coastal towns, to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in places such as Algeria and Morocco.^[28][29]

At the time of the Domesday Book, compiled in 1086, nearly 10% of the English population were slaves.^[30] Slavery in early medieval Europe was so common that the Roman Catholic Church repeatedly prohibited it — or at least the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands was prohibited at e.g. the Council of Koblenz (922), the Council of London (1102), and the Council of Armagh (1171).^[31] In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting Afonso V of Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery which legitimized the slave trade, at least as a result of war.^[32] The approval of slavery under these conditions was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455. However, Pope Paul III forbade enslavement of the Indians in 1537 in his papal bull Sublimus Dei.^[33] Dominican friars who arrived at the Spanish settlement at Santo Domingo strongly denounced the enslavement of the local Indians. Along with other priests, they opposed their treatment as unjust and illegal in an audience with the Spanish king and in the subsequent royal commission.^[34]

An 1852 Wallachian poster advertising an auction of Roma slaves in Bucharest.

The Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large numbers of Christian slaves into the Islamic world too.^[35] After the Battle of Lepanto approximately 12,000 Christian galley slaves were freed from the Ottoman Turks.^[36] Eastern Europe suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot and capture slaves into jasyr. Seventy-five Crimean Tatar raids were recorded into Poland–Lithuania between 1474–1569.^[37] There were more than 100,000 Russian captives in the Kazan Khanate alone in 1551.^[38]

The Arab slave trade

Main article: Arab slave trade See also: Slavery (Ottoman Empire) and Islam and slavery

Historians say the Arab slave trade lasted more than a millennium.^[39] Slaves in the Arab World came from many different regions, including Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj),^[40] the Caucasus (mainly Circassians),^[41] Central Asia (mainly Tartars), and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).^[42]

Ibn Battuta tells us several times that he was given or purchased slaves.^[43] Slaves were purchased or captured on the frontiers of the Islamic world and then imported to the major centers, where there were slave markets from which they were widely distributed.^[44][45][46] In the 9th and 10th centuries, the black Zanj slaves may have constituted at least a half of the total population in lower Iraq.^[47] At the same time, many tens of thousands of slaves in the region were also imported from Central Asia and the Caucasus.^[48]

Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.^[49][50] Some historians estimate that between 11 and 18 million African slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 AD to 1900 AD.^[11][51][52]

Central and Eastern European slaves were generally known as Saqaliba (i.e., Slavs).^[53] The Moors, starting in the 8th century, also raided coastal areas around the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean, and became known as the Barbary pirates. It is estimated that they captured 1.25 million white slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th centuries.^[54][55]

Redemption of Christian slaves by Catholic monks in Algiers in 1662.

^[56]

Slave trade in Europe

Main article: Slavery in medieval Europe

Approximately 10–20% of the rural population of Carolingian Europe consisted of slaves.^[57] In Western Europe slavery largely disappeared by the later Middle Ages.^[58] The trade of slaves in England was made illegal in 1102.^[59] Thralldom in Scandinavia was finally abolished in the mid-14th century.^[60] Slavery persisted longer in Eastern Europe. Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second serfdom. In Kievan Rus and Muscovy, the slaves were usually classified as kholops. Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until the year 1723, when the Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.^[61] Russia's more than 23 million privately held serfs were freed from their lords by an edict of Alexander II in 1861.^[62] State owned serfs were emancipated in 1866.^[63]

According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries.^[64][65] There was also an extensive trade in Christian slaves in the Black Sea region for several centuries until the Crimean Khanate was destroyed by the Russian Empire in 1783.^[38] In the 1570s close to 20,000 slaves a year were being sold in the Crimean port of Kaffa.^[66] The slaves were captured in southern Russia, Poland-Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Circassia by Tatar horsemen in a trade known as the "harvesting of the steppe". In Podolia alone, about one-third of all the villages were destroyed or abandoned between 1578 and 1583.^[67] Some researchers estimate that altogether more than 3 million people were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate.^[68][69] It is estimated that up to 75% of the Crimean population consisted of slaves or freedmen.^[70]

Slavery in Africa

Main article: African slave trade Southern Central Africa in 1880. Hamoud bin Mohammed, Sultan of Zanzibar from 1896 to 1902. He complied with British demands that slavery be banned in Zanzibar and that all the slaves be freed.

In early Islamic states of the western Sudan, including Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), about a third of the population were slaves. In Senegambia, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the Duala of the Cameroon, the Igbo and other peoples of the lower Niger, the Kongo, and the Kasanje kingdom and Chokwe of Angola. Among the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of slaves.^[71] The population of the Kanem (1600–1800) was about a third-slave. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves.^[71] The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas in the northern Nigeria and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. Between 65% to 90% population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved.^[71][72] When British rule was first imposed on the Sokoto Caliphate and the surrounding areas in northern Nigeria at the turn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people there were slaves.^[73] The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.^[74]

Clapperton in 1824 thought half the population of Kano were slaves; in 1827 he was told that slaves far outnumbered free men there.^[75] Gustav Nachtigal, an eye-witness, believed that for every slave who arrived at a market three or four died on the way.^[76] One of the most famous slave traders on the East African coast was Tippu Tip, who was himself the grandson of an enslaved African. The prazeros slave traders, descendants of Portuguese and Africans, operated along the Zambezi. North of the Zambezi, the waYao and Makua people played a similar role as professional slave raiders and traders. The Nyamwezi slave traders operated further north under the leadership of Msiri and Mirambo.^[77]

Slavery in Asia

Main article: History of slavery Persian slave in the Khanate of Khiva, 19th century

As late as 1908, women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.^[78] A slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaves was centred in the Central Asian khanate of Khiva.^[79] According to Sir Henry Bartle Frere (who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an estimated 8 million or 9 million slaves in India in 1841. In Malabar, about 15% of the population were slaves. Slavery was abolished in both Hindu and Muslim India by the Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843.^[11][80] In Istanbul about one-fifth of the population consisted of slaves.^[70]

In East Asia, the Imperial government formally abolished slavery in China in 1906, and the law became effective in 1910.^[81] Slave rebellion in China at the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century was so extensive that owners eventually converted the institution into a female-dominated one.^[82] The Nangzan in Tibetan history were, according to Chinese sources, hereditary household slaves.^[83] Indigenous slaves existed in Korea. Slavery was officially abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894 but remained extant in reality until 1930. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) about 30% to 50% of the Korean population were slaves.^[84] In late 16th century Japan, slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labor persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labor.^[85]

In Southeast Asia, a quarter to a third of the population of some areas of Thailand and Burma were slaves.^[11] The hill tribe people in Indochina were "hunted incessantly and carried off as slaves by the Siamese (Thai), the Anamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians."^[86] The Siamese military expedition had been converted into a slave hunting operation on a large scale.^[87]

The transatlantic slave trade

Main article: Atlantic slave trade

Slavery was prominent presumably elsewhere in Africa long before the beginnings of the transatlantic slave trade.^[70] The maritime town of Lagos, Portugal, was the first slave market created in Portugal for the sale of imported African slaves – the Mercado de Escravos, opened in 1444.^[88][89] In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern Mauritania.^[89] By the year 1552 black African slaves made up 10 percent of the population of Lisbon.^[90][91] In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas – in the case of Portugal, especially Brazil.^[89] In the 15th century one third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold.^[92]

Spain had to fight against the relatively powerful civilizations of the New World. However, the Spanish conquest of the indigenous peoples in the Americas was also facilitated by the spread of diseases (e.g. smallpox) due to lack of biological immunity.^[93] Natives were used as forced labour (the Spanish employed the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita),^[94] but the diseases caused a labour shortage and so the Spanish colonists were gradually involved in the Atlantic slave trade. The first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World were the Spaniards who labourers on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, where the alarming decline in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population (Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513). The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.^[95] In 1518, Charles I of Spain agreed to ship slaves directly from Africa. England played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade. The "slave triangle" was pioneered by Francis Drake and his associates. By 1750, slavery was a legal institution in all of the 13 American colonies,^[96][97] and the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution. ^[98]

“L’execution de la Punition du Fouet” (“Execution of the Punishment of the Whip”) showing the public flogging of a slave in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. From Jean Baptiste Debret, Voyage Pittoresque et Historique au Bresil (1834-1839).

The Transatlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo empire (Yoruba), the Ashanti Empire,^[99] the kingdom of Dahomey,^[100] and the Aro Confederacy.^[101] Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded for goods.

An estimated 12 million Africans were shipped to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries.^[102] Of these, an estimated 645,000 were brought to what is now the United States. The white citizens of Virginia decided to treat the first Africans in Virginia as indentured servants.^[103] Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured servants.^[104] In 1655, John Casor, a black man, became the first legally recognized slave in the present United States.^[105] According to the 1860 U.S. census, 393,975 individuals owned 3,950,528 slaves.^[106]

The largest number of slaves were shipped to Brazil.^[107] In the Spanish viceroyalty of New Granada, corresponding mainly to modern Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela, the free black population in 1789 was 420,000, whereas African slaves numbered only 20,000. Free blacks also outnumbered slaves in Brazil. In Cuba, by contrast, free blacks made up only 15% in 1827; and in Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) it was a mere 5% in 1789.^[108] Some half-million slaves, most of them born in Africa, worked the booming plantations of Saint-Domingue.^[109]

Slaves on a Virginia plantation (The Old Plantation, c. 1790)

Author Charles Rappleye argued that

“

In the West Indies in particular, but also in North and South America, slavery was the engine that drove the mercantile empires of Europe..It appeared, in the eighteenth century, as universal and immutable as human nature.[110]

”

Slavery in the United States

Main article: Slavery in the United States

Although the trans-Atlantic slave trade ended shortly after the American Revolution, slavery remained a central economic institution in the Southern states. All the Northern states passed emancipation acts between 1780 and 1804; most of these arranged for gradual emancipation.^[111] In the South, however, slavery expanded with the westward movement of population. Historian Peter Kolchin wrote, "By breaking up existing families and forcing slaves to relocate far from everyone and everything they knew" this migration "replicated (if on a reduced level) many of [the] horrors" of the Atlantic slave trade.^[112] Historian Ira Berlin called this forced migration the Second Middle Passage. Characterizing it as the "central event” in the life of a slave between the American Revolution and the Civil War, Berlin wrote that whether they were uprooted themselves or simply lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people, both slave and free."^[113] By 1860, 500,000 slaves had grown to 4 million. As long as slavery expanded, it remained profitable and powerful and was unlikely to disappear. Antislavery forces, however, proposed to put it on the path to extinction by stopping further expansion. If it became unprofitable, few people would spend the large sums of cash needed to buy and keep slaves, and the system would fade away quietly as it had in most countries in world history.

The plantation system, based on tobacco growing in Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky, and rice in South Carolina, expanded into lush new cotton lands in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi—and needed more slaves. But slave importation became illegal in 1808. Although complete statistics are lacking, it is estimated that 1,000,000 slaves moved west from the Old South between 1790 and 1860. Most of the slaves were moved from Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Michael Tadman, in a 1989 book Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South, indicates that 60–70% of interregional migrations were the result of the sale of slaves. In 1820 a child in the Upper South had a 30% chance to be sold south by 1860.^[114]

Political division over slavery was temporarily resolved by the Compromise of 1850 which sought to divide new territories between slave and free states. However, the status of Kansas was left unresolved, producing bloody clashes between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers.^[115] In 1860, the election of Abraham Lincoln as President on a program of limiting slavery led to the secession of Southern States and the outbreak of the US Civil War. Although Lincoln initially disclaimed any intention to interfere with slavery, the progress of the war produced the Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in Southern states still in revolt, and ultimately the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in December 1865, which ended legalized slavery in the United States.

Abolitionist movements

Main article: Abolitionism See also: Abolition of slavery timeline Three people in chains, probably somewhere in East-Africa. Estimates claim there were between 300,000 and 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million. Abolitionists are believed to have elevated their estimates at times to highlight their cause^[74] From the title page of abolitionist Anthony Benezet's book Some Historical Account of Guinea, London, 1788 Photographed in 1863 – Peter, a man who was enslaved in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, whose scars are a result of a whipping by his overseer, who was subsequently discharged by Peter's owner.

Slavery has existed, in one form or another, through the whole of recorded human history — as have, in various periods, movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves. According to the Biblical Book of Exodus, Moses led Israelite slaves out of ancient Egypt — possibly the first written account of a movement to free slaves. Later Jewish laws (known as Halacha) prevented slaves from being sold out of the Land of Israel, and allowed a slave to move to Israel if he so desired.

The Spanish colonization of the Americas sparked a discussion about the right to enslave native Americans. A prominent critic of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies was Bartolomé de las Casas, who opposed the enslavement of Native Americans, and later also of Africans in America.

One of the first protests against the enslavement of Africans came from German and Dutch Quakers in Pennsylvania in 1688. One of the most significant milestones in the campaign to abolish slavery throughout the world occurred in England in 1772, with British judge Lord Mansfield, whose opinion in Somersett's Case was widely taken to have held that slavery was illegal in England. This judgement also laid down the principle that slavery contracted in other jurisdictions (such as the American colonies) could not be enforced in England.^[116] In 1777, Vermont became the first portion of what would become the United States to abolish slavery (at the time Vermont was an independent nation). In 1794, under the Jacobins, Revolutionary France abolished slavery.^[117] There were celebrations in 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Abolition of the slave trade in the United Kingdom through the work of the British Anti-Slavery Society. William Wilberforce received much of the credit although the groundwork was an anti-slavery essay by Thomas Clarkson. Wilberforce was also urged by his close friend, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, to make the issue his own, and was also given support by reformed Evangelical John Newton. The Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament on 25 March 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout the British Empire, Wilberforce also campaigned for abolition of slavery in British Empire, which he lived to see in the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. After the 1807 act abolishing the slave trade was passed, these campaigners switched to encouraging other countries to follow suit, notably France and the British colonies.

Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.^[118] Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.^[119]

In the United States, abolitionist pressure produced a series of small steps towards emancipation. After January 1, 1808, the importation of slaves into the United States was prohibited,^[120] but not the internal slave trade, nor involvement in the international slave trade externally. Legal slavery persisted; and those slaves already in the U.S. would not be legally emancipated for nearly 60 years. Many American abolitionists took an active role in opposing slavery by supporting the Underground Railroad. Violence soon erupted, with the anti-slavery forces led by John Brown, and Bleeding Kansas, involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery settlers, became a symbol for the nationwide clash over slavery. The American Civil War, beginning in 1861, led to the end of slavery in the United States.

In 1863 Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves held in the Confederate States; the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1865) prohibited slavery throughout the country.

In the 1860s, David Livingstone's reports of atrocities within the Arab slave trade in Africa stirred up the interest of the British public, reviving the flagging abolitionist movement. The Royal Navy throughout the 1870s attempted to suppress "this abominable Eastern trade", at Zanzibar in particular.

On December 10, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which declared freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:

“

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.[121]

”

Contemporary slavery

See also: Modern day slavery, Child slavery, and Trafficking of children

Since 1945, debate about the link between economic growth and different relational forms (most notably unfree social relations of production in Third World agriculture) occupied many contributing to discussions in the development decade (the 1960s). This continued to be the case in the mode of production debate (mainly about agrarian transition in India) that spilled over into the 1970s, important aspects of which continue into the present (see the monograph by Brass, 1999, and the 600 page volume edited by Brass and van der Linden, 1997). Central to these discussions was the link between capitalist development and modern forms of unfree labour (peonage, debt bondage, indenture, and chattel slavery (which involves outright ownership of the slave)). Within the domain of political economy, the debate has a long historical lineage, and – accurately presented – never actually went away. Unlike advocacy groups, for which the number of the currently unfree is paramount, those political economists who participated in the earlier debates sought to establish who, precisely, was (or was not) to be included under the rubric of a worker whose subordination constituted a modern form of unfreedom. This element of definition was regarded as an epistemologically necessary precondition to any calculations of how many were to be categorized as relationally unfree.^{[citation needed]}

Slavery exists today across the world, including among nations within Africa. Groups such as the American Anti-Slavery Group, Anti-Slavery International, Free the Slaves, the Anti-Slavery Society, and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to rid the world of slavery. Conditions that are considered slavery include debt bondage, indentured servitude, serfdom, domestic servants kept in captivity, adoption in which children are effectively forced to work as slaves, child soldiers, and forced marriage.^[122] Though slavery was officially abolished in China in 1910,^[123] the practice continues unofficially in some regions of the country.^{[124][125][126]}

Slavery for agricultural labor persists in Florida in the United States today. The Modern-Day Slavery Museum documents seven cases of farm labor servitude successfully prosecuted in the US courts there in the past fifteen years.^[127]

More people suffer slavery than in the past but slaves are a smaller proportion of the human population.^{[citation needed]} Slaves are cheap and can therefore be treated as expendable.^{[citation needed]} Worldwide slavery is a criminal offence but criminal slave owners can get very high returns for their actions.^[128] According to researcher Siddharth Kara, the profits generated worldwide by all forms of slavery in 2007 was $91.2 billion. That is second only to drug trafficking in terms of global, criminal, illicit enterprises. The weighted average annual profits generated by a slave in 2007 was $3,175, with a low of an average $950 for bonded labor and $29,210 for a trafficked sex slave.^[129] Approximately forty percent of all slave profits each year are generated by trafficked sex slaves, representing slightly more than 4 percent of the world's 29 million slaves.^[129]

Current situation

Francis Bok, former Sudanese slave. It is estimated that as many as 200,000 people had been taken into slavery during the Second Sudanese Civil War. The slaves are mostly Dinka people.^[130][131]

Although outlawed in nearly all countries, forms of slavery still exist.^[4][132] Several estimates of the number of slaves in the world have been provided. According to a broad definition of slavery used by Kevin Bales of Free the Slaves (FTS), an advocacy group linked with Anti-Slavery International, there were 27 million people in slavery in 1999, spread all over the world.^[133] In 2005, the International Labour Organisation provided an estimate of 12.3 million forced labourers in the world,^[134]. Siddharth Kara has provided an estimate of 28.4 million slaves at the end of 2006 divided into the following three categories: bonded labour/debt bondage (18.1 million), forced labour (7.6 million), and trafficked slaves (2.7 million).^[129] Kara provides a dynamic model to calculate the number of slaves in the world each year, with an estimated 29.2 million at the end of 2009. The weighted average global sales price of a slave is calculated to be approximately $340, with a high of $1,895 for the average trafficked sex slave, and a low of $40 to $50 for debt bondage slaves in part of Asia and Africa.^[129]

Enslavement is also taking place in parts of Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.^[135] The Middle East Quarterly reports that slavery is still endemic in Sudan.^[136] In June and July 2007, 570 people who had been enslaved by brick manufacturers in Shanxi and Henan were freed by the Chinese government.^[137] Among those rescued were 69 children.^[138] In response, the Chinese government assembled a force of 35,000 police to check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, sent dozens of kiln supervisors to prison, punished 95 officials in Shanxi province for dereliction of duty, and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing an enslaved worker.^[137] In 2008, the Nepalese government abolished the Haliya system of forced labour, freeing about 20,000 people.^[139] An estimated 40 million people in India, most of them Dalits or "untouchables", are bonded workers, many working to pay off debts that were incurred generations ago.^[140][141] In Brazil more than 5,000 slaves were rescued by authorities in 2008 as part of a government initiative to eradicate slavery.^[142]

In Mauritania alone, it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved with many used as bonded labour.^[143][144] Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007.^[145] In Niger, slavery is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population.^{[146][147][148]} Pygmies, the people of Central Africa's rain forest,^[149] live in servitude to the Bantus.^[150] Some tribal sheiks in Iraq still keep blacks, called Abd, which means servant or slave in Arabic, as slaves.^[151] Child slavery has commonly been used in the production of cash crops and mining. According to the U.S. Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in "the worst forms of child labor" in 2002.^[152] Poverty has forced at least 225,000 children in Haiti's cities into slavery as unpaid household servants, called 'reste avec' (French: 'stay with').^[153]

In November 2006, the International Labour Organization announced it will be seeking "to prosecute members of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous forced labour of its citizens by the military at the International Court of Justice.^[154][155] According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labour in Myanmar.^[156][157] Since its inception in 1949, 40 to 50 million people are estimated to have been imprisoned in the laogai, the system of forced labor camps in the People's Republic of China.^[158]

The Ecowas Court of Justice is hearing the case of Hadijatou Mani in late 2008, where Ms. Mani hopes to compel the government of Niger to end slavery in its jurisdiction. Cases brought by her in local courts have failed so far.^[159]

Human trafficking

Main article: Human trafficking Monument to the slaves in Zanzibar

Trafficking in human beings (also called human trafficking) is one method of obtaining slaves. Victims are typically recruited through deceit or trickery (such as a false job offer, false migration offer, or false marriage offer), sale by family members, recruitment by former slaves, or outright abduction. Victims are forced into a "debt slavery" situation by coercion, deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat, physical force, debt bondage or even force-feeding with drugs of abuse to control their victims.^[160] “Annually, according to U.S. Government-sponsored research completed in 2006, approximately 800,000 people are trafficked across national borders, which does not include millions trafficked within their own countries. Approximately 80 percent of transnational victims are women and girls and up to 50 percent are minors,” reports the U.S. Department of State in a 2008 study.^[161]

Whilst the majority of victims are women, and sometimes children, who are forced into prostitution (in which case the practice is called sex trafficking), victims also include men, women and children who are forced into manual labour.^[162] Due to the illegal nature of human trafficking, its exact extent is unknown. A U.S. Government report published in 2005, estimates that 600,000 to 800,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year. This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally.^[162] Another research effort revealed that between 1.5 million and 1.8 million individuals are trafficked either internally or internationally each year, 500,000 to 600,000 of whom are sex trafficking victims.^[129]

Economics

Gustave Boulanger's painting The Slave Market

Economists have attempted to model during which circumstances slavery (and variants such as serfdom) appear and disappear. One observation is that slavery becomes more desirable for land owners when land is abundant but labour is not, so paid workers can demand high wages^{[citation needed]}. If labour is abundant but land is scarce, then it becomes more costly for the land owners to have guards for the slaves than to employ paid workers who can only demand low wages due to the competition. Thus first slavery and then serfdom gradually decreased in Europe as the population grew^{[citation needed]}. It was reintroduced in the Americas and in Russia (serfdom) as large new land areas with few people became available.^{[citation needed]}. In his books,Time on the Cross and Without Consent or Contract: the Rise and Fall of American Slavery, Robert Fogel maintains that slavery was in fact a profitable method of production, especially on bigger plantations growing cotton that fetched high prices in the world market. It gave whites in the South higher average incomes than those in the North, but most of the money was spent on buying slaves and plantations.

Slave being whipped in Brazil, during the heyday of gold exploration in Minas Gerais (1770).

Slavery is more common when the labour done is relatively simple and thus easy to supervise, such as large scale growing of a single crop. It is much more difficult and costly to check that slaves are doing their best and with good quality when they are doing complex tasks. Therefore, slavery was seen as the most efficient method of production for large scale crops like sugar and cotton, whose output was based on economies of scale. This enabled a gang system of labor to be prominent on large plantations where field hands were monitored and worked with factory-like precision. Each work gang was based on an internal division of labor that not only assigned every member of the gang to a precise task but simultaneously made his or her performance dependent on the actions of the others. The hoe hands chopped out the weeds that surrounded the cotton plants as well as excessive sprouts. The plow gangs followed behind, stirring the soil near the rows of cotton plants and tossing it back around the plants. Thus, the gang system worked like an early version of the assembly line later to be found in factories.^[163]

Critics since the 18th century have argued that slavery tends to retard technological advancement, since the focus is on increasing the number of slaves doing simple tasks rather than upgrading the efficiency of labour. Because of this, theoretical knowledge and learning in Greece—and later in Rome—was not applied to ease physical labour or improve manufacturing.^[164]

Adam Smith made the argument that free labor was economically better than slave labor, and argued further that slavery in Europe ended during the Middle Ages, and only then after both the church and state were separate, independent and strong institutions,^[165] that it is nearly impossible to end slavery in a free, democratic and republican forms of governments since many of its legislators or political figures were slave owners, and would not punish themselves, and that slaves would be better able to gain their freedom when there was centralized government, or a central authority like a king or the church.^[166] Similar arguments appear later in the works of Auguste Comte, especially when it comes to Adam Smith’s belief in the separation of powers or what Comte called the "separation of the spiritual and the temporal" during the Middle Ages and the end of slavery, and Smith's criticism of masters, past and present. As Smith stated in the Lectures on Jurisprudence, "The great power of the clergy thus concurring with that of the king set the slaves at liberty. But it was absolutely necessary both that the authority of the king and of the clergy should be great. Where ever any one of these was wanting, slavery still continues."

Apologies

On May 21, 2001, the National Assembly of France passed the Taubira law, recognizing slavery as a crime against humanity. Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, remain an open issue since slavery was practiced in Africa even before the first Europeans arrived and the Atlantic slave trade was performed with a high degree of involvement of several African societies. The black slave market was supplied by well-established slave trade networks controlled by local African societies and individuals.^[167] Indeed, as already mentioned in this article, slavery persists in several areas of West Africa until the present day.

“

There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Ashanti of Ghana also Calabar and other southern parts of Nigeria had economies depended solely on the trade. African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as middlemen or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans.[168]

”

Several historians have made important contributions to the global understanding of the African side of the Atlantic slave trade. By arguing that African merchants determined the assemblage of trade goods accepted in exchange for slaves, many historians argue for African agency and ultimately a shared responsibility for the slave trade.^[169]

The issue of an apology is linked to reparations for slavery and is still being pursued by a number of entities across the world. For example, the Jamaican Reparations Movement approved its declaration and action Plan.

In September, 2006, it was reported^[170] that the UK Government may issue a "statement of regret" over slavery, an act that was followed through by a "public statement of sorrow" from Tony Blair on November 27, 2006.^[171]

On February 25, 2007 the state of Virginia resolved to 'profoundly regret' and apologize for its role in the institution of slavery. Unique and the first of its kind in the U.S., the apology was unanimously passed in both Houses as Virginia approached the 400th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown, where the first slaves were imported into North America in 1619.^[172]

On August 24, 2007, Mayor Ken Livingstone of London, United Kingdom apologized publicly for Britain's role in colonial slave trade. "You can look across there to see the institutions that still have the benefit of the wealth they created from slavery," he said pointing towards the financial district. He claimed that London was still tainted by the horrors of slavery. Jesse Jackson praised Mayor Livingstone, and added that reparations should be made, one of his common arguments.^[173]

Reparations

Main article: Reparations for slavery

Sporadically there have been movements to achieve reparations for those formerly held as slaves, or sometimes their descendants. Claims for reparations for being held in slavery are handled as a civil law matter in almost every country. This is often decried as a serious problem, since former slaves' relative lack of money means they often have limited access to a potentially expensive and futile legal process. Mandatory systems of fines and reparations paid to an as yet undetermined group of claimants from fines, paid by unspecified parties, and collected by authorities have been proposed by advocates to alleviate this "civil court problem." Since in almost all cases there are no living ex-slaves or living ex-slave owners these movements have gained little traction. In nearly all cases the judicial system has ruled that the statute of limitations on these possible claims has long since expired.

Nonetheless, from time to time misinformation is circulated (often through e-mail) to United States residents describing a $5000 "slavery tax credit," supposedly passed into law under President Bill Clinton's administration during the 1990s, but never announced to the public. No such credit exists, and persons attempting to promote or take advantage of the alleged credit are subject to prosecution.^[174] (See Slavery reparations scam for further information.) A similar scam involves a "tax credit" available to Native Americans.

Other uses of the term

Entering Gulag, Soviet forced-labour camp (a leaf from Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya's notebook). Millions of people worked in the Gulag system of penal labour.^[175]

The word slavery is often used as a pejorative to describe any activity in which one is coerced into performing.

• Many anarchists, socialists, and communists have condemned "wage slavery" or "economic slavery", where workers are forced to choose between selling their labour and facing starvation, poverty or social stigma and a lack of prosperity. This is related to the notion of economic coercion.^{[citation needed]}
• Some libertarians and anarcho-capitalists view government taxation as a form of slavery.^[176]
• Some progressives and feminists feel that anti-abortion laws and other government laws that force a woman to carry a pregnancy to term is a form of slavery.
• Some feel that military drafts and other forms of coerced government labour constitute state-operated slavery.^{[177][178][179][180]}
• Some proponents of animal rights apply the term slavery to the condition of some or all human-owned animals, arguing that their status is comparable to that of human slaves.^[181]
• In Christianity, the situation of a non-converted person before God is as a slave of sin, being born with it due to the original sin of Adam. In this case, the word "salvation" is used to describe the person who, by accepting Christ and Christianity, would be free from the "slavery of sin".

See also

Various

Abolition of slavery timeline List of known slaves Bandeirantes Blackbirding Child labour Coolies Fazendas

Freeborn Impressment Industrial slave Involuntary servitude Master-slave dialectic Sambo's Grave Serfdom Sexual slavery Slavery at common law Slavery and religion

Slave ship Sweatshop Taxation as slavery Trafficking in human beings Underclass Unfree labour Wage slavery William Lynch speech Workhouse/Poorhouse

Slavery by region

European Slavery in Bermuda Nazi Germany Slavery in Nazi Germany Forced labor in Germany during World War II Thralls (slaves of the vikings) Swedish slave trade Africa Slavery in Mauritania Slavery in modern Africa African slave trade Atlantic slave trade Royal African Company

Slavery in Asia Middle East Barbary pirate Slavery in Sudan Arab slave trade Saqaliba Russia Slavery in Soviet Union Kholops (semi-slaves in Russia) Far East Slavery in seventeenth-century China Slavery in Japan History

America Aztec slavery Slavery in Brazil Quilombo Slavery in Canada Coastwise slave trade Slavery in the United States Origins of the American Civil War North Carolina v. Mann George Washington#Washington and slavery Forced into Glory: Abraham Lincoln's White Dream United States National Slavery Museum The Slave Community (book)

Slavery by religion and era

History of slavery Christianity and slavery The Bible and slavery Pope Nicholas V and slavery Islam and slavery Judaism and slavery The Exodus Passover

Slavery in antiquity Slavery in ancient Greece Slavery in ancient Rome Spartacus Slavery in medieval Europe Modern slavery Forced prostitution

Papal bulls on slavery Sicut Dudum (1435) Dum diversas (1452) Romanus Pontifex(1455) Sublimus Dei (1537)

Opposition and resistance

Abolition of slavery timeline Compensated emancipation First Servile War

International Year List of notable opponents of slavery Slave rebellion

Slave narrative The State of Bonded Labor in Pakistan

Films

Stanley Kubrick, Spartacus (1960 film), 1960 Sergio Giral, Cimarron, 1967 Marlon Brando, Burn!, 1969 Sergio Giral, El Otro Francisco (The Other Francisco), 1975 Tomas Gutierrez Alea, La Ultima Cena (The Last Supper), 1976 Alex Haley, Roots, 1977 mini-series based on Haley's book

Carlos Diegues, Quilombo, 1984 Julie Dash, Daughters of the Dust, 1991 Haile Gerima, Sankofa, 1993 Charles Burnett, Nightjohn, 1996 Steven Spielberg, Amistad, 1997

Jonathan Demme, Beloved, 1998 Kevin Willmott, C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America, 2004 (mockumentary/political drama) Owen 'Alik Shahadah, 500 Years Later, 2005 Michael Apted, Amazing Grace, 2006 Marco Kreuzpainter, Trade, 2007

Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights General principles Article 1: Freedom, Egalitarianism, Dignity and Brotherhood Article 2: Universality of rights International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 1 and 2: Right to freedom from discrimination · Article 3: Right to life, liberty and security of person · Article 4: Freedom from slavery · Article 5: Freedom from torture and cruel and unusual punishment · Article 6: Right to personhood · Article 7: Equality before the law · Article 8: Right to effective remedy from the law · Article 9: Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention and exile · Article 10: Right to a fair trial · Article 11.1: Presumption of innocence · Article 11.2: Prohibition of retrospective law · Article 12: Right to privacy · Article 13: Freedom of movement · Article 14: Right of asylum · Article 15: Right to a nationality · Article 16: Right to marriage and family life · Article 17: Right to property · Article 18: Freedom of thought, conscience and religion · Article 19: Freedom of opinion and expression · Article 20.1: Freedom of assembly · Article 20.2: Freedom of association · Article 21.1: Right to participation in government · Article 21.2: Right of equal access to public office · Article 21.3: Right to universal suffrage International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Article 1 and 2: Right to freedom from discrimination · Article 22: Right to social security · Article 23.1: Right to work · Article 23.2: Right to equal pay for equal work · Article 23.3: Right to just remuneration · Article 23.4: Right to join a trade union · Article 24: Right to rest and leisure · Article 25.1: Right to an adequate standard of living · Article 25.2: Right to special care and assistance for mothers and children · Article 26.1: Right to education · Article 26.2: Human rights education · Article 26.3: Right to choice of education · Article 27.1: Right to participate in culture · Article 27.2: Right to intellectual property Context, limitations and duties Article 28: Social order · Article 29.1: Social responsibility · Article 29.2: Limitations of human rights · Article 29.3: The supremacy of the purposes and principles of the United Nations Article 30: Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein. Category:Human rights · Human rights portal

Discrimination General forms Ableism · Ageism · Caste · Classism · Colorism · Genism · Heightism · Linguicism · Lookism · Mentalism · Racism · Rankism · Religious · Sexism · Sexualism · Sizism · Speciesism · Weightism · Xenophobia Specific forms Social Adultism · Anti-Albinism · Anti-homelessness · Anti-Intellectualism · Antisemitism · Audism · Biphobia · Childism · Cronyism · Elitism · Ephebiphobia · Gerontophobia · Heterophobia · Heteronormativity · Heterosexism · Homophobia · Leprosy stigma · Lesbophobia · Misandry · Misogyny · Nepotism · Pediaphobia · Reverse Discrimination · Transphobia · Triumphalism Against cultures Albanian · American · Arab · Armenian · British · Canadian · Catalan · Chilean · Chinese · English · Estonian · European · French · Gentiles · German · Haitian · Hispanic · Igbo · Indian · Iranian · Irish · Israel · Italian · Japanese · Jewish · Korean · Malay · Mexican · Manchu · Polish · Portuguese · Quebec · Romani · Romanian · Russian · Scottish · Serb · Turkish · Ukrainian Against religions Atheisism · Bahá'í · Catholicism · Christianity · Hinduism · Judaism · Mormonism · Islam · Pagans · Protestantism · New religious movements · Shi'a Islam Manifestations Blood libel · Eliminationism · Ethnic cleansing · Ethnocide · Gay bashing · Gendercide · Genocide (examples) · Hate crime · Hate speech · Lynching · Pogrom · Race war · Religious persecution · Slavery Policies Discriminatory Apartheid · Internment · Race / Religion / Sex segregation · Redlining · Numerus clausus · Ghetto benches Anti-discriminatory Civil rights · Indigenous rights · Desegregation · Emancipation · Integration · Equal opportunity · Gender equality Related Affirmative action · All-women shortlists · Forced busing · Employment equity (Canada) · Racial quota · Reparation · Reservation (India) International law Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO 169 · ILO C100 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Other forms Androcentrism · Adultcentrism · Colorism · Cronyism · Economic · Ethnocentrism · Gynocentrism · Linguicism · Nepotism · Triumphalism Related topics Afrocentrism · Bigotry · Diversity · Eugenics · Multiculturalism · Police brutality · Political correctness · Prejudice · Racialism · Reverse discrimination · Speciesism · Tolerance · Missing white woman syndrome

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14. ^ Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves, by W. V. Harris: The Journal of Roman Studies, 1999
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16. ^ Ben Kiernan "Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur", Yale University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-300-10098-1, 9780300100983, Pages 65–68
17. ^ Léonie J. Archer (1988). "Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree Labour: And Other Forms of Unfree Labour." History Workshop Centre for Social History (Oxford, England), Published by Routledge,ISBN 0-415-00203-6, 9780415002035, Page 28
18. ^ Slavery in Ancient Rome
19. ^ BBC – History – Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome
20. ^ Schiavone Aldo (2000), The End of the Past. Ancient Rome and the Modern West, Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, p.112.
21. ^ The Romans at Work and Play Western New England College.
22. ^ "The Roman slave supply" Walter Scheidel. Stanford University.
23. ^ "Slaves in Saudi". Naeem Mohaiemen. The Daily Star. July 27, 2004.
24. ^ Slave trade – Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
25. ^ JewishEncyclopedia.com – slave-trade
26. ^ Slavery Encyclopedia of Ukraine
27. ^ Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier
28. ^ "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_02.shtml.
29. ^ "Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates by Christopher Hitchens, City Journal Spring 2007". http://www.city-journal.org/html/17_2_urbanities-thomas_jefferson.html.
30. ^ University of Wisconsin. "Medieval English society". history.wisc.edu. http://history.wisc.edu/sommerville/123/123%2013%20Society.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-05.
31. ^ Slavery, serfdom, and indenture through the Middle Ages
32. ^ Allard, Paul (1912). "Slavery and Christianity". Catholic Encyclopedia. XIV. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14036a.htm. Retrieved 4 February 2006.
33. ^ Sublimus Dei
34. ^ Thomas, Hugh (2003). Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 258–262. ISBN 0297645633.
35. ^ Ottoman Dhimmitude
36. ^ Famous Battles in History The Turks and Christians at Lepanto
37. ^ Davies, Brian (2007). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe,1500–1700.
38. ^ ^{a b} "The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
39. ^ Islam and Slavery
40. ^ "Race and slavery in the Middle East: an historical enquiry". Bernard Lewis (1992). Oxford University Press US. p.53. ISBN 0195053265
41. ^ "Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, August 6 1856
42. ^ Soldier Khan
43. ^ Insights into the concept of Slavery
44. ^ Historical survey > The international slave trade. Encyclopædia Britannica.
45. ^ slave-trade. JewishEncyclopedia.com
46. ^ Muslim Slave System in Medieval India, K.S. Lal, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi
47. ^ Slavery. Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History.
48. ^ Slavery. Encyclopædia Britannica.
49. ^ Swahili Coast. Nationalgeographic.com
50. ^ Remembering East African slave raids, BBC News, March 30, 2007
51. ^ Focus on the slave trade, BBC News, September 3, 2001
52. ^ The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is — and it's not over
53. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford Univ Press 1994.
54. ^ When europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed
55. ^ Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800.Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt, "Transatlantic Slave Trade", Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999), ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
56. ^ Milton, Giles (2004). White Gold : the Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and North Africa's One Million European Slaves. Hodder. pp. 352. ISBN 0340794690.
57. ^ Anderson, Perry (1996). Passages from antiquity to feudalism. Verso. p. 141. ISBN 1859841074.
58. ^ Slavery in the Middle Ages. Historymedren.about.com
59. ^ The Saxon Slave-Market. First published in Bristol Magazine July 2006.
60. ^ Träldom. Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 30. Tromsdalstind – Urakami /159–160, 1920. (In Swedish)
61. ^ Historical survey > Ways of ending slavery. Encyclopædia Britannica.
62. ^ "Slavery (sociology)". Encyclopædia Britannica.
63. ^ Mee, Arthur; Hammerton, J. A.; Innes, Arthur D.;"Harmsworth history of the world: Volume 7", 1907, Carmelite House, London; at page 5193.
64. ^ "Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800". Robert Davis (2004) ISBN 1-4039-4551-9
65. ^ Rees Davies, British Slaves on the Barbary Coast, BBC, July 1, 2003
66. ^ Halil Inalcik. "Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire" in A. Ascher, B. K. Kiraly, and T. Halasi-Kun (eds), The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern, Brooklyn College, 1979, pp. 25–43.
67. ^ Subtelny, Orest (1988). "Ukraine: a history.". p 106
68. ^ Fisher 'Muscovy and the Black Sea Slave Trade', pp. 580—582. [1]
69. ^ Soldier Khan By Mike Bennighof, Ph.D. September 2007
70. ^ ^{a b c} Historical survey > Slave societies. Encyclopædia Britannica.
71. ^ ^{a b c} Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
72. ^ Digital History Slavery Fact Sheets
73. ^ Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review), Project MUSE – Journal of World History
74. ^ ^{a b} Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery
75. ^ "Slavery in the history of Muslim Black Africa". Humphrey J. Fisher (2001). C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p.33. ISBN 1850655243
76. ^ "Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey". Willem Adriaan Veenhoven, Winifred Crum Ewing, Stichting Plurale Samenlevingen (1976). p.440. ISBN 9024717795
77. ^ The East African slave trade. BBC World Service | The Story of Africa.
78. ^ Sexual slavery – the harem. BBC – Religion & Ethics
79. ^ "The Freeing of the Slaves"
80. ^ Historical survey > Slave-owning societies
81. ^ "Slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica. May 19, 2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-ending-slavery.
82. ^ "Agriculture > Slave protest". Encyclopædia Britannica.
83. ^ A. Tom Grunfeld, The making of Modern Tibet, Revised Edition, Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1996, p. 15.
84. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica – Slavery
85. ^ Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan, p. 31-32.
86. ^ "Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Northern Thailand (Page 4 of 6)". Kyoto Review of South East Asia; (Colquhoun 1885:53).
87. ^ "Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Northern Thailand: Archival Anecdotes and Village Voices" (Page 3 of 6). The Kyoto Review of South Asia
88. ^ Goodman, Joan E. (2001). A Long and Uncertain Journey: The 27,000 Mile Voyage of Vasco Da Gama. Mikaya Press, ISBN 0-9650493-7-X.
89. ^ ^{a b c} de Oliveira Marques, António Henrique R. (1972). History of Portugal. Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-03159-9, p. 158-160, 362–370.
90. ^ Thomas Foster Earle, K. J. P. Lowe "Black Africans in Renaissance Europe" p.157 Google
91. ^ David Northrup, "Africa's Discovery of Europe" p.8 (Google)
92. ^ Klein, Herbert. The Atlantic Slave Trade.
93. ^ David A. Koplow Smallpox The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge
94. ^ U.S. Library of Congress
95. ^ HEALTH IN SLAVERY
96. ^ Scott, Thomas Allan (1995-07). Cornerstones of Georgia history. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0820317438, 9780820317434. http://books.google.com/?id=0qdkKS2F42MC&lpg=PA114&dq=isbn%3A0820317438&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q=.
97. ^ "Thurmond: Why Georgia's founder fought slavery". http://savannahnow.com/node/448938. Retrieved 2009-10-04.
98. ^ Digital History, Steven Mintz. "Was slavery the engine of economic growth?". Digitalhistory.uh.edu. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/con_economic.cfm. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
99. ^ "Ending the Slavery Blame-Game". The New York Times. April 22, 2010.
100. ^ The Transatlantic Slave Trade Alexander Ives Bortolot. Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University.
101. ^ Nigeria – The Slave Trade. Source: U.S. Library of Congress.
102. ^ Ronald Segal (1995). The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 4. ISBN 0-374-11396-3. "It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. [Note in original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature," in Journal of African History 30 (1989), p. 368.] ... It is widely conceded that further revisions are more likely to be upward than downward."
103. ^ Frontline: Famous Families
104. ^ Indentured Servitude in Colonial America. Deanna Barker, Frontier Resources.
105. ^ Selling Poor Steven. Philip Burnham, American Heritage Magazine.
106. ^ 1860 Census Results, The Civil War Home Page.
107. ^ Stephen D. Behrendt, David Richardson, and David Eltis, W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research, Harvard University. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt (1999). "Transatlantic Slave Trade". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
108. ^ "AFRICAN-AMERICANS". History.com.
109. ^ Birth of a Nation / "Has the bloody 200-year history of Haiti doomed it to more violence?", San Francisco Chronicle, May 30, 2004.
110. ^ Sons Of Providence: The Brown Brothers, the Slave Trade, and the American Revolution By Charles Rappleye. 2006 Simon & Schuster. 978-0743266871
111. ^ Richard S. Newman, Transformation of American abolitionism: fighting slavery in the early Republic chapter 1
112. ^ Kolchin p. 96
113. ^ Berlin pp. 161–162
114. ^ Berlin pp. 168–169. Kolchin p. 96. Kolchin notes that Fogel and Engerman maintained that 84% of slaves moved with their families but "most other scholars assign far greater weight ... to slave sales." Ransome (p. 582) notes that Fogel and Engermann based their conclusions on the study of some counties in Maryland in the 1830s and attempt to extrapolate that as reflective of the entire South over the entire period.
115. ^ "Bleeding Kansas (United States history)". Encyclopædia Britannica.
116. ^ S.M.Wise, Though the Heavens May Fall, Pimlico (2005)
117. ^ Abolition Movement. Online Encyclopedia
118. ^ Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore. BBC – Devon – Abolition
119. ^ The West African Squadron and slave trade
120. ^ Foner, Eric. "Forgotten step towards freedom," New York Times. December 30, 2007.
121. ^ "The law against slavery". Religion & Ethics – Ethical issues. British Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/slavery/modern/law.shtml. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
122. ^ "Religion & Ethics – Modern slavery: Modern forms of slavery". BBC. 2007-01-30. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/slavery/modern/modern_2.shtml. Retrieved 2009-06-16.
123. ^ Commemoration of the Abolition of Slavery Project
124. ^ Chinese Police Find Child Slave
125. ^ Convictions in China slave trial
126. ^ "Acme of Obscenity". http://www.tibetwrites.org/?Acme-of-Obscenity. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
127. ^ "Modern Slavery". http://www.thenation.com/blogs/edcut/546269/modern_slavery?rel=EmailNation. Retrieved 2010-03-30.
128. ^ name="slavery1"/
129. ^ ^{a b c d e} Kara, Siddharth (October 2008). Sex Trafficking – Inside the Business of Modern Slavery. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231139601.
130. ^ War and Genocide in Sudan
131. ^ The Lost Children of Sudan
132. ^ BBC Millions 'forced into slavery'
133. ^ Kevin Bales, Disposable People
134. ^ A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour..
135. ^ "Does Slavery Still Exist?". Anti-Slavery Society. http://www.anti-slaverysociety.org/slavery.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
136. ^ "My Career Redeeming Slaves". MEQ. December 1999. http://www.meforum.org/article/449. Retrieved 2008-07-31.
137. ^ ^{a b} "Convictions in China slave trial". BBC. July 17, 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6902459.stm. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
138. ^ Zhe, Zhu (June 15, 2007). "More than 460 rescued from brick kiln slavery". China Daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-06/15/content_894802.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
139. ^ "Nepal abolishes slave labour system". ABC News. September 8, 2008.
140. ^ "The Untouchables". CBC Radio.
141. ^ "UN report slams India for caste discrimination". CBC News. March 2, 2007.
142. ^ Forced labour clouds boom in Brazil's Amazon, BBC
143. ^ Mauritania made slavery illegal last month
144. ^ The Abolition season on BBC World Service
145. ^ Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law
146. ^ The Shackles of Slavery in Niger
147. ^ Born to be a slave in Niger
148. ^ BBC World Service | Slavery Today
149. ^ As the World Intrudes, Pygmies Feel Endangered, New York Times
150. ^ Congo's Pygmies live as slaves, newsobserver.com
151. ^ IRAQ: Black Iraqis hoping for a Barack Obama win, Los Angeles Times
152. ^ U.S. Department of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2005 Human Rights Report on Côte d'Ivoire
153. ^ "Report says 225,000 Haiti children work as slaves". Msnbc.msn.com. December 22, 2009.
154. ^ "ILO seeks to charge Myanmar junta with atrocities". Reuters. 2006-11-16. http://in.today.reuters.com/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=worldNews&storyID=2006-11-16T163442Z_01_NOOTR_RTRJONC_0_India-276537-1.xml&archived=False. Retrieved 2006-11-17.
155. ^ ILO asks Myanmar to declare forced labour banned
156. ^ ILO cracks the whip at Yangon
157. ^ Critics: Myanmar biofuel drive uses forced labor
158. ^ "Museum in US to showcase China's forced labour camps". Agence France-Presse. November 8, 2008.
159. ^ BBC report on Mani case
160. ^ Trafficking FAQs – Amnesty International USA
161. ^ Lost Daughters – An Ongoing Tragedy in Nepal Women News Network – WNN, Dec 05, 2008
162. ^ ^{a b} US State Department Trafficking report
163. ^ Lagerlöf, Nils-Petter (2006-11-12). "Slavery and other property rights". Ideas.repec.org. http://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/372.html. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
164. ^ "Technology". History.com. 2008-01-04. http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=223811. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
165. ^ Slavery and Evangelical Enlightenment by Robert P Forbes in Religion and the Antebellum Debate over Slavery By John R. McKivigan and Mitchell Snay
166. ^ Adam Smith and the Virtues of Enlightenment by Charles L. Griswold
167. ^ Adu Boahen, Topics In West African History p. 110
168. ^ Afrikan Involvement In Atlantic Slave Trade, By Kwaku Person-Lynn, Ph.D
169. ^ João C. Curto. Álcool e Escravos: O Comércio Luso-Brasileiro do Álcool em Mpinda, Luanda e Benguela durante o Tráfico Atlântico de Escravos (c. 1480–1830) e o Seu Impacto nas Sociedades da África Central Ocidental. Translated by Márcia Lameirinhas. Tempos e Espaços Africanos Series, vol. 3. Lisbon: Editora Vulgata, 2002. ISBN 978-972-8427-24-5.
170. ^ What the papers say, BBC News, 2006-09-22
171. ^ Blair 'sorrow' over slave trade, BBC News, 2006-11-27
172. ^ BBC News, 2007-02-25
173. ^ Livingstone breaks down in tears at slave trade memorial
174. ^ Barbara Mikkelsen, 'Black Tax' Credit; Snopes.com. Retrieved 2009.09.21.
175. ^ "Gulag (labour camps, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)". Encyclopædia Britannica.
176. ^ E.g., Machan, Tibor R. (13 April 2000). "Tax Slavery". Ludwig von Mises Institute. http://www.mises.org/story/410. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
177. ^ See the Slavery section in the Conscription article for more.
178. ^ The Military Draft and Slavery and Conscription Is Slavery both by Ron Paul
179. ^ An Idea Not Worth Drafting: Conscription is Slavery by Peter Krembs
180. ^ Nationalized Slavery; A policy Italy should dump by Dave Kopel refers to both the military and national service requirements of Italy as slavery.
181. ^ Spiegel, Marjorie. The Dreaded Comparison: Human and Animal Slavery, New York: Mirror Books, 1996.

Bibliography

• Bales, Kevin, Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy (1999)
• Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, vol. III: The Perspective of the World (1984, originally published in French, 1979.)
• Davis, David Brion. The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770-1823 (1999)
• Davis, David Brion. The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1988)
• Finkelman, Paul. Encyclopedia of Slavery (1999)
• Lal, K. S. Muslim Slave System in Medieval India (1994) ISBN 81-85689-67-9
• Gordon, M. Slavery in the Arab World (1989)
• E. Wyn James, 'Welsh Ballads and American Slavery', Welsh Journal of Religious History, 2 (2007), pp. 59–86. ISSN 0967-3938.
• Jacqueline Dembar Greene, Slavery in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, (2001), ISBN 0-531-16538-8
• Morgan, Kenneth. Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America (2008)
• Nieboer, H. J. (1910). Slavery as an Industrial System
• Postma, Johannes. The Atlantic Slave Trade, (2003)
• Rodriguez, Junius P., ed., The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery (1997)
• Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia (2007)
• Shell, Robert Carl-Heinz Children Of Bondage: A Social History Of The Slave Society At The Cape Of Good Hope, 1652–1813 (1994)
• William Linn Westermann, The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity (1955), ISBN 0-87169-040-3

Uncited sources

• Hogendorn, Jan and Johnson Marion: The Shell Money of the Slave Trade. African Studies Series 49, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986.
• The Slavery Reader, ed. by Rigas Doganis, Gad Heuman, James Walvin, Routledge 2003
• Mintz, S. Facts and Myths

United States

• Berlin, Ira. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (1999), most important recent survey
• Blackmon, Douglas A. Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II Doubleday (March 23, 2008), ISBN 0-385-50625-2 ISBN 978-0-385-50625-0
• Boles, John. Black Southerners: 1619–1869 (1983) brief survey
• Engerman, Stanley L. Terms of Labor: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labor (1999)
• Genovese Eugene D. Roll, Jordan Roll (1974), classic study
  • Richard H. King, "Marxism and the Slave South", American Quarterly 29 (1977), 117–31, a critique of Genovese
• Escott, Paul D. "Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk about Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Freedom" Journal of Southern History, Vol. 67, 2001
• Parish, Peter J. Slavery: History and Historians (1989)
• Phillips, Ulrich B. American Negro Slavery:A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Regime (1918; paperback reprint 1966), southern white perspective
• Phillips, Ulrich B. Life and Labor in the Old South (1929)
• Sellers, James B. Slavery in Alabama (1950).
• Sydnor, Charles S. Slavery in Mississippi (1933
• Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (1956), a rebuttal of U B Philipps
• Vorenberg, Michael . Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment (2001)
• Weinstein, Allen , Frank O. Gatell, and Lewis Sarasohn, eds., American Negro Slavery: A Modern Reader, third ed. (1978)
• Mintz, S. Slavery Facts & Myths, Digital History

Slavery in the modern era

• Jesse Sage and Liora Kasten, Enslaved: True Stories of Modern Day Slavery, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008 ISBN 978-1-4039-7493-8
• Tom Brass, Marcel van der Linden, and Jan Lucassen, Free and Unfree Labour. Amsterdam: International Institute for Social History, 1993
• Tom Brass, Towards a Comparative Political Economy of Unfree Labour: Case Studies and Debates, London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass Publishers, 1999. 400 pages.
• Tom Brass and Marcel van der Linden, eds., Free and Unfree Labour: The Debate Continues, Bern: Peter Lang AG, 1997. 600 pages. A volume containing contributions by all the most important writers on modern forms of unfree labour.
• Kevin Bales, Disposable People. New Slavery in the Global Economy, Revised Edition, University of California Press 2004, ISBN 0-520-24384-6
• Kevin Bales (ed.), Understanding Global Slavery Today. A Reader, University of California Press 2005, ISBN 0-520-24507-5freak
• Kevin Bales, Ending Slavery: How We Free Today's Slaves, University of California Press 2007, ISBN 978-0-520-25470-1.
• Mende Nazer and Damien Lewis, Slave: My True Story, ISBN 1-58648-212-2. Mende is a Nuba, captured at 12 years old. She was granted political asylum by the British government in 2003.
• Gary Craig, Aline Gaus, Mick Wilkinson, Klara Skrivankova and Aidan McQuade (2007). Contemporary slavery in the UK: Overview and key issues, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. ISBN 978-1-85935-573-2.
• Somaly Mam Foundation

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Slavery

Look up slavery in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Slavery

Historical

• Slavery Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress
• African Holocaust
• Parliament & The British Slave Trade 1600 – 1807
• Emory and Oxford College
• Slavery Fact Sheets, Digital History
• The West African Squadron and slave trade
• Slavery – PBS
• Understanding Slavery
• Slavery

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